Acid + Active metal → Salt + Hydrogen

eg. Hydrochloric acid + magnesium → Magnesiium chloride + hydrogen gas

2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)

All active metals are above 0.00 V (the hydrogen half cell) in the standard reduction table. Eg. Zn, Mg, Fe, etc.

Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Eg. Ethanoic acid acid + Sodium hydrogen carbonate → sodium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide

CH₃COOH(aq) + NaHCO₃(aq) → CH₃COO^-Na⁺(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)

Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water

eg. Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide → potassium sulfate + water

   H₂SO₄(aq) + 2KOH(aq) → K₂SO₄(aq) + 2H₂O(l)

Note: All neutralisation equations are exothermic in nature as the net ionic reaction is the same.

H⁺(aq) + OH^-(aq) → H₂O(l) ∆H < 0

C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) → 2C₂H₅OH(aq) + 2CO₂(g)

C₂H₅OH(aq) + 3O₂(g) → 2CO₂(g)+ 3H₂O(l)

nCH₂=CH₂ (-CH₂-CH₂-)n
ethylene polyethylene

nCH₂=CHCl  (-CH₂-CHCl-)n
vinyl chloride polyvinyl chloride
 

nCH₂=CHC₆H₅  (-CH₂-CHC₆H₅-)n
styrene polystyrene
 

n(C₆H₁₂O₆) → (-C₆H₁₀O₅-)n + (n-1)H₂O(l)

glucose → celluose + water

Cellulose is made up of repeating glucose units.

Note: The beta 1,4 glycosidic bond (oxygen atom joining the monomers) alternates with the CH₂OH side group

Remember the catalyst for each

Anode: Oxidation: Pb(s) + SO₄^2-(aq) → PbSO₄(s) + 2e^- 0.36 V

Cathode: Reduction: PbO₂(s) + 4H⁺(aq) + SO₄^2-(aq) + 2e^- → PbSO₄(s) + 2H₂O(l) 1.69 V
 

Electrolyte. The 4 to 6 M H₂SO₄ (The sulfuric acid keeps the concentration of Pb²⁺ ions low by forming insoluble lead sulfate, which adheres to the electrodes. Since the electrodes are intact the battery is rechargeable.)

Anode: Li → Li⁺ + e^-
Cathode: ½ I₂ + e- → I^-

Electrolyte: Solid sate. The non aqueous electrolyte is a conducting polymer containing Li+I- formed between the anode and the cathode.
 

Commerical radioisotope can be produced in

a) nuclear fission reactors by bombarding target nuclei with neutrons.
Eg. The production of Cobalt-60,   +  →

Nuclear fission reactors produce radioisotopes that are ‘rich’ in neutrons.

and

b) particle accelerators by bombarding target nuclei with charged particles(eg. protons & ions).

Eg. The production of carbon-11 in a cyclotron, + → 

Particle accelerators produce radioisotopes that are deficient in neutrons.

Strong acids completely ionise producing a lower pH

HCl(aq) ==> H⁺(aq) + Cl^-(aq), pH =1

H₂SO₄(aq) ==> 2H⁺(aq) + SO₄^2-(aq), pH = 0.7

Sulfuric acid is diprotic, producing more H⁺ ions than HCl and therefore has a lower pH

Weak acids only partially ionise producing a higher pH

CH₃COOH(aq) <==> CH₃COO^-(aq) + H⁺(aq), pH = 3

Citric acid <==> citrate ion + H⁺(aq) , pH = 4 (Ionises less than acetic acid producing a higher pH)

Acting as an acid (H⁺ donor): HCO₃^-(aq) + OH^-(aq) <==> CO₃^2-(aq) + H₂O(l)

Acting as a base(H⁺ acceptor): HCO₃^-(aq) + H₃O⁺(aq) <==> H₂CO₃( aq) + H₂O(l)

N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) <==> 2NH₃(g) ∆H = -92kJ

A finely ground iron catalyst, Fe₃O₄, with a large surface area, is used in the Haber process.

The gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen molecules are adsorbed and rearranged forming the ammonia molecules. By lowering the activation energy, a catalyst enables a more rapid reaction at lower temperatures.

Esterification is a condensation reaction: Alcohol + organic acid --> Ester (alkyl alknoate) + Water

When you are given the structure of an ester first identify the acidic component by circling it.

The acidic component is the last part of the ester name. eg. methanoate, ehtanoate, propanoate, butanoate, etc.

Name the following ester. What was it made from?

Answer: ethyl propanoate. Made from ethanol and propanoic acid